[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5296614509678389833]

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-969941831261341122]

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2938006198012425770]

Carnaval de 2004:

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3015066402846595984]

Carnaval de 2005:

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2360642922029737012]

Carnaval de 2006:

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3969778919804219213]

Carnaval de 2007:

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3653712206907241592]

Carnaval de 2008:

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1353235243091984832]

Aqui, uma vinheta com informações sobre a Escola de Samba Vilage no Samba, que roda durante a transmissão (ao vivo) do carnaval:

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9200632692195722782]

E aqui um comercial da transmissão do carnaval ao vivo.  Algumas das tomadas foram feitas por mim no carro dos puxadores, no ano de 2005:

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=860187077017270936]

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6676505266999261687]

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=604554555801779231]

Efeito lembrança é o destaque neste comercial.

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4611659154560269341]

Cliente: Cadima Shopping

Agência: Fábrica de Idéias

Cinegrafista(s): Pedro Bessa e Thiago Ceccon

Edição: Pedro Bessa

Comercial feito para a CAENF, concessionária de Águas e Esgotos de Nova Friburgo.

No briefing, havia a necessidade de produzir um efeito "desenho animado". Uso de chroma key e bastante photoshop. Aliás, o efeito desenho é feito no Photoshop, usando a exportação em frames previamente e aplicando o efeito a todas as imagens em tif. Depois foi só importar no Combustion para a composição final.

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7621291910107416767]

Cliente: CAENF

Agência: NPE | TV ZOOM

Diretor de Arte: Pedro Bessa

Cinegrafista(s): Pedro Bessa

Edição: Pedro Bessa

Este comercial tem como particularidade, o efeito "lembrança", bastante interessante.

[googlevideo=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3062631048573179109]

Cliente: Cadima Shopping

Agência: Fábrica de Idéias

Cinegrafista(s): Pedro Bessa e Thiago Ceccon

Edição: Pedro Bessa

S&B's duct air heaters are designed to be inserted right into your procss ductwork. The burner in out AHD unites uses the oxygen present in the process stream for combustion eliminating the need for an additional combustion air source. Our recirculating models are dsigned for process streams with low oxygen conent and feature a combustion blower.

If interested call 513-367-9300 or visit www.stelterbrinck.com

Services performed by our technicians include:

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Visit: www.stelterbrinck.com

Bien voy a explicar lo mas basico. Disponemos de dos formatos para  exportar nuestros videos: PAL y NTSC.

FORMATO PAL (D1) / RESOLUCIÓN 720X576 / 25 FPS (FOTOGRAMAS POR SEGUNDO)

FORMATO NTSC  (D1) / RESOLUCIÓN 720X480 / 29.97 FPS (FOTOGRAMAS POR SEGUNDO)

El sistema PAL se utiliza en Europa y Australia mientras que el sistema NTSC se utiliza en America y Sudamerica.

Tambien tenemos dos formatos, segun donde proyectemos el video: 4:3 y 16:9

4:3 Lo utilizariamos para proyecciónes cuadradas (4=720, 3=576, pixel=1067)

16:9 Lo utilizariamos para proyecciónes panoramicas (16=720, 9=576, pixel=1422) 

Debemos de saber que segun el formato varia los barridos de la imagen.

FORMATO PAL = 625 LÍNEAS

FORMATO NTSC = 525 LÍNEAS

¿Para que sirve los barridos? Es la forma de entrada de la imagen. Se le denomina "profundidad de campo". Por ejemplo si vamos a reproducir nuestro video en un televisor (realiza dos barridos en lineas pares e impares) tenemos que saber con que profundidad de campo entraria "PAR" o "IMPAR". En caso de ser en un ordenador no haria falta.

Si exportasemos nuestro video y se publicara en TV (broadcast) sin haber configurado la profundidad de campo veriamos unas "pequeñas líneas discontinuas" constantes en el video.

Para saber en que formato y que profundidad de campo hay que indicarle cuando exportamos fijaros en la siguiente lista:

PAL D1 --> UPPER (IMPAR)

NTSC D1 / NTSC DV / PAL DV --> LOWER (PAR)

Estas configuración se realizan en software de edición de video como Premiere, Avid o software de postproducción como Combustión.

¿Que codec utilizar?

Podemos utilizar distintos codecs pero los mas recomendados son:

Quick Time (Sorenson); Real Media y Real Windows (Divx).

Pongo una interesante tabla para saber en que formato podemos exportar:

SALIDA ------FORMATO DE RENDER ----------- CODEC ----------RESOLUCIÓN 

VIDEO               TGA, RLA, RPF, TIFF                 SIN COMPRIMIR        PAL, NTSC

WEB/CD             QUICK TIME, AVI                     DIVX (XVID)              4:3 / 16:9

IMPRESIÓN          TIFF                                        SIN COMPRIMIR        300 DPI 

Espero que os sirva de ayuda.

Assalamu Alaykum

This morning I decided I would drive in to the office and try to get some things done ... those things that I can't get done during the standard work day with the phone ringing and emails filling up my inbox and people standing around me asking me question after question. And meetings! Meeting after meeting. Why? All the time I spend in meetings with upper management and owners simply take away time I could spend actually DOING things they are asking me when they will be finished.

I arrived around 7a. It was so quiet and peaceful with not a single soul around. I let myself in, put on a fresh pot of coffee, got my Qur'an transliteration going on the iPod and went to work. In 5 hours, I got more accomplished than I would in an entire week. Alhumdilillah!

Occasionally I would hear some horribly loud noise in the Mill above me. It sounded like the guys were working moving ingredients from bins to mixing hoppers. It was eerie as there was no one there but me. A few times I would feel like someone was looking at me thru the glass window on the office door. That happens a lot during the day. Sometimes there is someone really there but most time it is nothing but a strange sensation of being watched.

I could have stayed for a few more hours and almost completely cleared my desk but I was hungry and I didn't want to miss my Living Islam live session on SunniPath. So I closed up shop and headed for home. I did make a quick stop at Staples for a new phone battery for the cordless phone and a yellow ink cartridge for my printer ... how did I use all the yellow and not the other colors?

Oh, I wanted to mention "the fumes". I don't know what else to call them. It started 10 years ago after a really low point in my life. Let's just say that I had done something really bad and I had finally come clean and confessed my wrong doings. Although a huge weight was lifted from my chest as I no longer had to carry that secret, the fumes came.

I would smell what ... for lake of a better way of explaining ... seemed to be diesel fumes. Very strongly. It's like my nose is full of it and I can't breath. In the beginning, it would scare me so badly that I would call my Mother crying that I couldn't breath and she would rush me to the ER. Test after test and nothing was wrong with me. No one else can ever smell the fumes when they come. I did not know ... and still do not know ... what it is or where it comes from.

Over the years, I have grown used to it ... it is a pesky annoyance that seems to arrive at no set time. It doesn't matter where I am or what I am doing. It doesn't matter my mood or my state of being. It doesn't matter if I am asleep or awake. I used to worry that I was going to just burst in to flames ... spontaneous human combustion. That's dumb I know but I did worry about it.

It doesn't scare me anymore. It actually fascinates me. What is it? What does it want? What is it trying to tell me? It comes very rarely but when it comes it stays for days. It has been with me since Friday night.

insha'Allah I will one day understand "the fumes" ... or not.

Was-salam,

~N

Starring Ben Stiller, Jack Black, Robert Downey Jr., Brandon T. Jackson, Ray Baruchel, Steve Coogan, Matthew McConaughey, Nick Nolte, Bill Hader and Tom Cruise

Produced by DreamWorks and Red Hour Films

Written by Ben Stiller, Justin Theroux and Etan Cohen

Directed by Ben Stiller

I literally just walked in the door from seeing this and couldn't wait to talk about it. It's hands down one of the funniest movies I've ever seen...and get this, Tom Cruise is hilarious. Too bad he's a crazy ass Scientologist. Ben Stiller and Justin Theroux are a perfect comedy-writing team.

Tugg Speedman (Ben Stiller), Jeff Portnoy (Jack Black) and Kirk Lazarus (Robert Downey Jr.) are three well-known actors making a Vietnam movie. The director, Damien (Steve Coogan), can't stand their diva-like behavior and comes up with the plan with the film/novel's writer, Four Leaf Tayback (Nick Nolte), to desert the three in the middle of Vietnam. Little do they know, the zone is a real warzone that also doubles as a heroin production plant and Tugg finds himself their hostage. The others team up and rescue him and produces one of the most ridiculous things I've seen on film.

All three actors were great. Everyone's been saying Ben Stiller isn't as funny as he usually is, but I totally disagree. I think if ANYONE was off it was Jack Black, and that breaks my heart because I love him. Robert Downey Jr. was absolutely hilarious. I could not stop laughing. That ridiculous over-the-top "black" accent along with all those 70s Shaft-esque was one of the best things I've seen on screen. HOWEVER, by far my favorite part was Tom Cruise. I swear to God, everytime he was on screen I was doubled over in laughter. I really, really, really he would stop doing the crappy movies he's doing now and stick to comedy because he NAILED it. It would no doubt revive his career and MAYBE even his crazy reputation.

Justin Theroux has so much talent and I'm really glad he's starting to get a lot of recognition. As I said before, he and Ben Stiller know how to write a killer comedy. Ben was great as a director, in fact, I was impressed. Director of Photography John Toll has yet another great looking film under his belt. There were a lot of really impressive shots...a lot shot from low angles...and it looked great.

People who find this movie offensive are absolutely stupid. If you want a ridiculous amount of laughter, go see this immediately. It's fucking great.

Aquel que salvó a Sadrac, Mesac y Abed-nego del fuego de Nabucodonosor puede salvarle a usted del fuego del infierno.

Keep your process heat systems well-maintained with Stelter & Brinck's Scheduled Burner Maintenance Program and take advantage of the following cost-saving benefits!!

Reduced Downtime
Increased Production
Reduced Fuel Costs
Improved Safety
Increased Equipment Life
National Fire Protection Association, FM, and GAP (IRI) code compliance

Features of the Scheduled Burner Maintenance Program

System leak test (gas leaks)
National Fire Protection Association and insurance safety checks
Burner tuning for efficiency
Burner operation reliability
Burner and pilot inspection
Preventative Maintenance

With high fuel prices, attractive government incentives, galloping inflation, electric cars are the in thing. BUT ARE THEY?

The REVA Company took out advertisements in the newspapers some weeks ago. They say that the cost per kilometre is 80 paise as compared to approximately Rs. 4 in petrol cars. They also say that their vehicles are less polluting.

But what they fail to inform us citizens about is the fact that their vehicle does not compare to the petrol vehicles in any manner.

Electric Cars have a Range of 80 kilometres and add to that the fact that their battery life is prone to be temperamental. The actual on road range you get depends on condition.

On any incline, the battery starts straining and disappearing extremely fast while rain and other forms of bad weather beat its socks off. Another thing is that REVA seats 2 while most small petrol cars can effectively seat 5.

The cost difference in the 2 forms of vehicles is staggering if you take 2 REVA’s as equivalent to one introductory Maruti 800.

Also, you do not get any good Air Conditioner with the starting REVA due to the fact that it compromises battery power and near zero boot space.

Eco warriors will point out that the car protects the environment, but what I say is that all it does is shift the smokestack from the vehicle to the power plant. What we are effectively doing is use the diesel in power plants and replacing more efficient petrol engines by the less efficient generators in power plants to get lesser outputs.

I am not defending internal combustion engines but I wish people to realise that the financial outlay does not make up for whatever its good effects. It will take eons of driving and that too while ensuring that the cost of power remains the same, for the REVA to justify yourself.

The Final Decision is yours. What do you have to say? Any comments, suggestions or contradictions...... please post them!!

Unlike wood, TimberTech’s composites offer easy installation and are maintenance-free; TimberTech’s products don’t rot, warp, weather, fade, or splinter. In addition, they never need staining, painting, or sealing. With a Limited 25-Year Residential Warranty, TimberTech guarantees their decking and railing products remain safe, durable, and attractive, year after year.  Not only are these composite products high-quality and maintenance-free, but TimberTech is able to meet each user’s outside living space needs by offering a wide variety of color options, decking profiles, surfaces, and board sizes.

Because TimberTech uses wood and sawdust, it is imperative that they take precautions to prevent fires.  TimberTech relies on Stelter & Brinck’s Preventative Maintenance (PM) services to be certain they are taking necessary safety measures. TimberTech’s Maintenance Supervisor, Ben Davenport, says, “Stelter & Brinck helps us comply with the National Fire Protection Association’s codes.” This, according to Davenport, even “saves [TimberTech] insurance money!”  With regard to the value and convenience of S&B’s in-depth technical reports, Davenport states, “Stelter & Brinck’s reports cover everything! I store them on my computer and e-mail them to our insurance company if any questions regarding code compliance arise!”

Safety, code compliance, insurance savings, and valuable reports aren’t the only reasons TimberTech uses Stelter & Brinck’s services.  TimberTech considers S & B services to be first-class; Davenport declares, “Stelter & Brinck provides outstanding service, which is second to none! [They] are a 10! They provide the most consistent, high-quality, trouble-free services!” He goes on to explain, “Stelter & Brinck’s PMs keep our equipment up and running, day after day. Stelter & Brinck’s services reduce our downtime, which enables us to keep our delivery time to a minimum.”

3-Sigma’s technical expertise enables them to meet each customer’s “exact needs”. Not only does 3-Sigma offer the lowest minimum in the industry, but to provide customers with the best solution to their adhesive needs, 3-Sigma will also help with product design and will give material recommendations. By enabling customers to deliver the highest quality products on-time to their end users, 3-Sigma helps customers secure new business. From pharmaceutical, health and beauty to business form and technical products, 3-Sigma provides labels for some of the most widely recognized companies in virtually every industry. 3-Sigma has built a reputation second-to-none.

As the premier provider of adhesive products, 3-Sigma relies on Stelter & Brinck to help them maintain their position in the market. 3-Sigma’s Maintenance and Engineering Manager, Randy Corns, states that they look to Stelter & Brinck to continually rebuild, upgrade, and service their equipment because “Stelter & Brinck is the real deal; [their] technicians are not only experts, but are backed by S&B’s world-class engineering department.”

Corns can’t say enough about the impact Stelter & Brinck has had on 3-Sigma. Corns states, “Stelter & Brinck makes my life easier and our business more profitable!” Corns goes on to say, “S & B has helped our company save tremendous amounts of energy.” He believes that, “using Stelter & Brinck’s Scheduled Burner Maintenance Program, quarterly, lengthens the life of our equipment and reduces our operating costs.” According to Corns, “Before S & B upgraded our ovens, our frustrations were enormous. We were constantly fighting nuisance shut-downs. Thanks to Stelter & Brinck upgrades, we have more uptime and consequently ship more product. Now we’re happy and so are our customers.”

La mayoría de los procesos de combustión liberan energía (casi siempre en forma de calor), que se aprovecha en los procesos industriales para obtener fuerza motriz o para la iluminación y calefacción domésticas. La combustión también resulta útil para obtener determinados productos oxidados, como en el caso de la combustión de azufre para formar dióxido de azufre y ácido sulfúrico como producto final. Otro uso corriente de la combustión es la eliminación de residuos.

La energía liberada durante la combustión provoca una subida de temperatura en los productos. La temperatura alcanzada dependerá de la velocidad de liberación y disipación de energía, así como de la cantidad de productos de combustión. El aire es la fuente de oxígeno más barata, pero el nitrógeno, al constituir tres cuartos del aire en volumen, es el principal componente de los productos de combustión, con un aumento de temperatura considerablemente inferior que en el caso de la combustión con oxígeno puro. Teóricamente, en toda combustión sólo se precisa añadir una mínima porción de aire al combustible para completar el proceso. Sin embargo, con una mayor cantidad de aire, la combustión se efectúa con mayor eficacia y aprovechamiento de la energía liberada. Por otra parte, un exceso de aire reducirá la temperatura final y la cantidad de energía liberada. En consecuencia habrá de establecerse la relación aire-combustible en función de la temperatura y del grado de combustión deseados. Para lograr altas temperaturas se puede utilizar aire rico en oxígeno, o incluso oxígeno puro, como en el caso de la soldadura oxiacetilénica. El grado de combustión se puede aumentar partiendo el material combustible para aumentar su superficie y de este modo incrementar su velocidad de reacción. También se consigue dicho aumento añadiendo más aire para proporcionar más oxígeno al combustible. Cuando se necesita liberar energía de modo instantáneo, como en el caso de los cohetes, se puede incorporar el oxidante directamente al combustible durante su elaboración.

Por orden de potencial calorífico, los combustibles sólidos más comunes son: el carbón, el coque, la madera, el bagazo de caña de azúcar y la turba. La combustión de estos materiales provoca la descomposición del combustible y la formación de materias volátiles como el gas, que arden con una llama tiznosa. Los residuos de sólidos carbónicos arden dependiendo de la difusión de oxígeno en su superficie. Esta combustión precisa una temperatura en la superficie que oscile entre 400 y 800 °C, que se puede conseguir por la radiación del calor procedente de un objeto o medio de temperatura elevada. Al quemar combustible en una chimenea, el aire debe ir atravesando el combustible sólido, y la temperatura necesaria se mantiene por radiación entre las partículas. Al objeto de lograr una combustión más rápida, al carbón se le añade aire y se le trata en un horno. La relación aire-combustible necesaria dependerá fundamentalmente del tipo de combustible empleado; así 1 kg de carbón común bituminoso requiere un mínimo de 11 kg de aire para completar la combustión. En el caso del carbón activado, la temperatura de las llamas puede llegar a los 1.540 °C. Si se quema carbón en polvo fino (polvo de carbón) o un hidrocarburo en circunstancias no controladas, la combustión se produce con gran rapidez, casi como una explosión. Ejemplos de estos procesos de combustión acelerada son los incendios en minas causados por el polvo de carbón.

Los combustibles líquidos más comunes son el fuel, la gasolina y las naftas derivadas del petróleo. Les siguen en importancia el alquitrán de hulla, el alcohol y el benzol obtenido en el proceso de elaboración de coque. En los hornos fijos se introduce fuel poco volátil en la cámara de combustión a través de unas boquillas, ya sea en presencia de vapor y aire o sin ella. En un motor de combustión interna, los combustibles volátiles como la gasolina o las mezclas de alcohol y gasolina (gasolina reformada) se evaporan y la mezcla penetra en el cilindro del motor, donde la combustión se provoca con una chispa. En el caso de estos combustibles se precisan entre 16 y 23 kg de aire para la combustión de 1 kg de combustible. En los motores diesel, el combustible se introduce en forma de lluvia atomizada en la cámara de combustión, donde el aumento de temperatura asociado con el nivel de compresión de dichos motores, es suficiente para provocar el encendido.

A los combustibles gaseosos como el gas natural, el gas refinado o los gases manufacturados, se les añade aire antes de la combustión para proporcionarles una cantidad suficiente de oxígeno. La mezcla de aire y combustible surge del quemador a una velocidad mayor que la de la propagación de la llama, evitando así el retroceso de ésta al quemador, pero permitiendo el mantenimiento de la llama en éste. Estos combustibles, en ausencia de aire, arden con llamas relativamente frías y humeantes. Cuando el gas natural arde en el aire alcanza temperaturas que superan los 1.930 °C.

Los cohetes espaciales suelen utilizar combustibles líquidos como el queroseno y la hidracina, y contienen oxidantes como el oxígeno líquido, el ácido nítrico o el peróxido de hidrógeno. Los lanzacohetes militares emplean combustibles sólidos como la cordita, a los que se incorpora oxígeno; éstos arden espontáneamente al calentarse por la radiación de los productos de la combustión.

Luego Uds. seguramente se preguntarán:

¿El OPDS, organismo encargado del control ambiental en la provincia de Bs.As. (si es que el humo se quedó en suelo bonaerense) se ha preocupado por estar en el lugar del incendio y ha realizado monitoreos de calidad aire?

¿EL OPDS ha tomado también muestras de los residuos sólidos o líquidos (si estos se han generado).

Por otra parte ¿cómo queda el suelo en ese lugar?

¿El OPDS constatará si si esta emergencia ha impactado sobre las napas del lugar (a pesar del estado en que actualmente estas se encuentren)?

Y esa población en riesgo ambiental permanente que habita en las inmediaciones de la planta siniestrada ¿Qué agua bebe?

¿La empresa AySA tiene una fuente de captación en la zona (pozo local) o trae el vital elemento de un lugar alejado al sitio donde se desató esta emergencia ambiental?

Nueve dotaciones combaten un incendio en Sarandí

Las llamas afectan a una fábrica de plástico. Los vecinos de la zona fueron evacuados porque el humo es altamente tóxico. No hay heridos
Nueve dotaciones de bomberos combaten las intensas llamas, pero por ahora no logran controlar el fuego. Los vecinos son desalojados dado que el humo el altamente tóxico.  Por ahora no hay heridos.

Hay tensión en la zona porque la combustión que se produce por la quema de los plásticos es altamente tóxica y los vecinos de fábrica tuvieron que ser desalojados de las casas.

En tanto, la gigantesca columna de humo se propaga por la ciudad y ya se puede divisar desde distintos puntos de la Capital.

Son en total 24 los bomberos que combaten intensamente las llamas desde hace una hora y no logran controlar el fuego. Coloboran además personal de Defensa Civil, de Sarandí.

Juan Santos, director de Defensa Civil, explicó a C5N la estrategia para apagar el incendio: “Estamos trabajando para rodear y acotar las llamas para poder controlarlo”. Luego, comentó que la empresa se dedica a los reciclados de plásticos y pronosticó que en breve apagaran el incendio.
08 AGO 2008

FUENTE: INFOABAE.COM BS.AS.  ARGENTINA

• Mid-1800’s, oil was found in open ponds in parts of the US
• This oil was taken to chemists for analysis, commercial applications were suggested
• Gasoline was originally a by-product of refining, it was disposed of as it was dangerous
• Early 1900’s, electric lighting replacing kerosene, internal combustion could increase demand for gasoline
• Gasoline: low flash point and a high temperature of combustion, dangerous but perfect for IC engine
• Cracking method needed to produce gasoline from crude oil
• Oil has complex, heavy, long chain molecules, must be “cracked” or broken down to produce lighter kerosene and gasoline
• By 1911, chemists working for oil companies developed methods to crack petroleum using high temperatures and pressures
• Improvements eliminated “knock”, increased efficiency & purity

Steam Engine and Thermodynamic Theory

• Thermodynamic theory and steam engines
• Vacuum and atmospheric pressure
• Christian Huygens & Denis Papin (1673) small charge of gunpowder exploded in cylinder, vacuum causes cylinder to be pushed downwards by air pressure, lifting 1600lbs through 5 feet
• Steam engine: piston covers chamber, steam pushes it up, cooling the steam causes it to condense, creating vacuum, and weight of atmosphere presses down
• Thomas Newcomen: steam engine in 1712
• Newcomen engine inefficient, demonstrated that a vacuum could be harnessed
• James Watt introduced a separate condenser for steam, improved efficiency
• No significant scientific contributions to the early development of steam engine

Thermodynamic Theory

• Joseph Black: specific heat and latent heat
• Specific heat: different substances are heated to different degrees by the same amount of heat
• Latent heat: when you heat a material and it changes phase the temperature does not increase for a time, as the energy is used to change it from one phase to another, this energy is latent in the material
• Heat is a substance found inside of things, imponderable, like light or electricity
• Sadi Carnot: first person to quantify heat transformation into work
• Conservation of energy, heat, motion and electricity are different forms of energy

Engineers and Machines

• Machines to build machines (lathes), precision metal working, performance and efficiency improvements, later interchangeable parts and mass-production
• Steelmakers and informal methods for altering carbon content
• Hot air in the ironworking process, ass production of steel, stronger, more durable machines and structures

Electricity

• Electricity an imponderable fluid, passed through certain substances, and not others, stored in objects called Leyden jars
• Storage of electricity and experiments
• Benjamin Franklin: electricity has a charge, lightning and electricity the same
• Coulomb measured electricity with a magnetic needle, electricity and magnetism and inverse square laws
• Patterns: energy was convertible, different forces (gravity, electricity, magnetism) behaved according to inverse square laws
• Alessandro Volta –a damp cloth between two pieces of metal could produce electricity, first battery
• Electricity used for different purposes: medical, decomposition of materials
• Oerstead - connection between electricity and magnetism
• Michael Faraday: moving electrical current produces a magnetic field, and vice versa
• Currents can be produced by moving magnets, basis of electric motor

Chemistry

• Chemical processes:
• Rusting of metal
• Calcination: add heat to metal and get ashen calx
• Calx can be transformed back to the original metal by heating it with charcoal
• Mixing solutions can change their color
• Distillation for purification

Combustion, Experiments with Fire

• Progress and the problem of combustion
• Combustion is a primary process in chemistry and alchemy
• Aristotle’s 4 element theory
• Fire as a weightless fluid with small particles that penetrate other substances
• 1703 Ernst Stahl borrowed from alchemical theory to explain combustion
• Alchemical theory: three kind of earth: terra pinguis (fatty earth), terra terra mercurialis (mercurial earth), and terra lapidea (stony earth)
• Terra pinguis, escaped during combustion, something was emitted
• He called the substance released phlogiston (Greek phlogistos, meaning burnt)
• Phlogiston and combustion (fire, heat, light)
• Combustion a loss of phlogiston, leaving ash behind
• Air supports combustion, absorbing phlogiston, to saturation
• Phlogisticated air is saturated and will not support combustion
• Dephlogisticated air will support combustion
• No combustion in a vacuum, as it cannot absorb phlogiston
• Weight gain on combustion, phlogiston has negative weight, or levity

Pneumatics, Experiments with Air

• Vacuums used to develop scientific theories, liquids evaporate in a vacuum, water boils at lower temperature
• Experimental isolation of different kinds of air
• Henry Cavendish: immersed metals in acid to produce gas, inflammable air, or phlogiston
• Mixing two kinds of air together (common and inflammable) with a spark produced a liquid
• Dephlogisticated air also produced liquid when sparked
• Water – compound: phlogiston and dephlogisticated air
• 2 volumes of phlogiston + 1 volume of dephlogisticated air = water
• Joseph Priestly: heating the calx of mercury produces respirable air, or dephlogisticated air

Lavoisier and the Revolution in Chemistry

• Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, beheaded during Terror of French Revolution
• 1789, Elements of Chemistry, a fundamental change in chemistry
• Lavoisier’s work standardized quantitative laboratory methods in chemistry
• He applied “methods of physics”, i.e. Newton, to chemistry
• “Balance approach”, weight of products and reactants to be equal

Lavoisier and Combustion:

• Certain metals (mercury and lead), gained weight when heated
• Objects heated in air would combust
• Lavoisier reversed phlogiston theory; air was absorbed during combustion, rather than phlogiston being emitted
• When you burn a metal it absorbs oxygen and becomes a metallic oxide
• Calx’s are thus metal + oxygen
• “Eminently respirable air” or flammable air, was found in acids, named it “oxygen”, or “acid begetter” in Greek
• Water is a complex substance made up of two kinds of air or gasses

Nomenclature

• Substances named according to known components, using Greek and Latin names
• Standardization in textbooks
• Element: whatever was left over after analysis, an experimental definition

Science and Capitalism

• “… science was affecting the development of capitalism, enabling it to turn away from the individualist free competition of small-scale industry to the large monopolist undertakings with deliberately planned and scientific production methods.” p 658
• Science and understanding of world, science and changing or manipulating world
• Scientists and tradesmen, and the availability of capital allow shift

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